An Elitest Constitution Essay Example For Students

An Elitest Constitution Essay Did the American Constitution embody the principles outlined in the Declaration of Independence? The prima facie answer would be yes. Looking deeper and remembering that during the Age of Empires the world ran on money, force of arms and enlightened self-interest, that the answer is now it depended on who you were. Application of the occasional Machaivellian twist to some of the Founding Fathers decisions will be used to support this view point. The Declaration of Independence said that men were entitled as a Creator given right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. And that as long as a government did not infringe upon these it could have the obedience of the people. The document was influenced by philosophers such as Montesquieu and Thomas Paine notably his Common Sense. The famous phrase life liberty and the pursuit of happiness was inspired by the Second Treaties on Government writen by the English jurist Locke. Although in Lockes version, the last word was one more in keeping with reality than revolutionary rhetoric it was property. In 1787 representatives of the 13 states met in Philadelphia to revise the articles of confederation. These representatives were mostly from towns on or near the coast and also ranked amongst the financially successful of the time. Indeed 40 out of the 55 were owed money by the treasury department. Instead they created a new totally new national government And the democratic society that Americans had fought for on the War of Independence was to shortly become an elitist capitalistic republic. So what was wrong with the Confederation and also the colonial system they had just broken away from ? Madison said, referring to the Confederation, A government which relies on thirteen independent sovereignties for the means of its existence, is a solecism in theory and a mere nullity in practice cited by Mitchell(1975) Under British rule the founding fathers had seen the effects where any one branch of a government managed to wield too much power and wanted they to create a system where such ministerial abuse would be impossible. Contrasting this was how to balance the freedom of the citizen from interference from central government while maintaining a system that protected the rights of minorities from an abuse of majority rule in a republican structure without exposing the government to the dangers of mob rule. The delegates considered that the states of the Confederation were too democratic; in that political experience was open to all. The states body politic saw nothing wrong with interfering with the economy if it benefited the members of said body politic. This complicated trade. The British economist Adam Smith had argued that as wealth increased in scope, government would have to perform still greater services on behalf of the propertied class. From a commercial point of view there was no standardised currency with states issuing their own paper money subject to fluctuating exchange values. The state legislative was run for the benefit of each state first and then other members of the Confederation. Added to this was the militancy of the often heavily indebted agrarian class who had taken to disrupting sales of foreclosed lands, freeing their peers from debtors prison and the occasional food riot. The most famous of these incidents being Shays Rebellion. The delegates at Philadelphia decided to design a new system. According to one Maryland delegate 21 out of 55 initially favoured some form of monarchy but that would never get past popular opinion. The writings of Montesquieu on the separation of powers (that he mistakenly saw in the British government) inspired the Philadelphia convention to adopt a structure where the national executive, legislative and judiciary where totally separate. No one branch of government could act without the co-operation of another. Also the division of power was such that no branch could expand its authority without infringing on that of ano ther branch thus encountering fierce resistance. In Madisons words, cited by Leas(1983) p36, Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. Then within the federal government power was diffused vertically by the people granting certain powers to the state and others on to the national government. National power would be checked by State .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .postImageUrl , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:hover , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:visited , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:active { border:0!important; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:active , .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563 .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5fed8c4ba2928196558d80d80d0f2563:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Actions bring Consequences Essay

Can Breaking the Law Ever Be Justified Essay Example

Can Breaking the Law Ever Be Justified? Paper Can breaking the law ever be justified? Imagine a world without those brave people who dared to not abide by the law and fight for a right. A world without Gandhi would be a world without independent India; without Mandela there would be white superiority in Africa; without freedom fighters, there would be no democracy in Nepal. I believe that all the actions of such law breakers are good, even though they were against various laws, and such actions can be justified to some extent. Even though laws are meant to maintain order and protect rights, it is not always justified; some might be unfair to minorities whereas others might stir up a revolution. Some just violate human rights. In such cases, civil disobedience might be necessary. â€Å"Freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed† said Martin Luther King Jr. The righteousness of revolt is shown by this remark made by a great revolutionary himself. Indeed, so much of justice has been served through revolutions. Gandhi, in India chased the British away through non-violent methods. Marching on, producing salt and breaking the law, Gandhi took a stubborn stance, without violent means, showing that they would not handle the British rule anymore. This established a happier independent India. Similarly, Mandela broke the racial barrier in South Africa, by breaking the law he helped in establishing greater good. Another major reason for breaking the law is because of one’s religion or culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Can Breaking the Law Ever Be Justified? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Can Breaking the Law Ever Be Justified? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Can Breaking the Law Ever Be Justified? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The French law has recently banned wearing the Islamic attire called ‘niqab’. An extreme effort to bring equality into the Muslim society, it is equally an imposition to women’s freedom. People put religion before law in some cases and rightfully so. It is not moral for the law to tell someone what not to wear; it is taking the freedom of choice away. It is a violation of human rights and not at all worthy of being called an offense. Similarly, public nudity is also taken as an offense to the law in many places. I do not think that shedding clothes will do more harm than create arguments among couples passing by. It is just a way showing the love of nature to many and there is no reason why it is wrong to do so. Likewise, PETA activists might have done a nude rally to raise awareness against wearing fur clothing. An act like this would be a justifiable reason to break the law. More than breaking the law, it is an animal rights awareness campaign which should lie higher than the nudity law. There are also cases where law breaking becomes a compulsion, which is when it comes to life and death. The hierarchy of law should be taken into account. Saving somebody’s life is always of more importance than obeying civil laws. For example, if a person is severely injured and the closest hospital is across the border in another country, then illegally crossing the border should not be the main concern, saving the person’s life should and in such cases law breaking is most definitely justifiable. However, breaking the law is not always justified. Vigilantism and Terrorism are two major issues where groups or individuals claim to be providing justice or freedom. Vigilantes like the Ku Klux Klan are basically extremists who try to bring justice by exterminating wrong doers, while in doing so they are violating greater laws. To some they are freedom fighters and to others they are terrorists. Other extremists like the Jihadists are even worse; they conduct violent bombings and self sacrifices in the name of religion destroying innocent lives along with their own. Both these acts are terrorizing rather than justifying. These terrorist and Vigilantes don’t seem to realize that before acting as saviors they are completely violating human rights. Personalities, heroes like Gandhi, Mandela and King will always be necessary. Times are changing and with them so will the wants of people. With time there will be more conflict and as a last resort there will always be room for justice even while breaking the law.

Differences Between Probability and Statistics

Differences Between Probability and Statistics Probability and statistics are two closely related mathematical subjects. Both use much of the same terminology and there are many points of contact between the two. It is very common to see no distinction between probability concepts and statistical concepts. Many times material from both of these subjects gets lumped under the heading â€Å"probability and statistics,† with no attempt to separate what topics are from which discipline. Despite these practices and the common ground of the subjects, they are distinct. What is the difference between probability and statistics? What Is Known The main difference between probability and statistics has to do with knowledge. By this, we refer to what are the known facts when we approach a problem. Inherent in both probability and statistics is a population, consisting of every individual we are interested in studying, and a sample, consisting of the individuals that are selected from the population. A problem in probability would start with us knowing everything about the composition of a population, and then would ask, â€Å"What is the likelihood that a selection, or sample, from the population, has certain characteristics?† Example We can see the difference between probability and statistics by thinking about a drawer of socks. Perhaps we have a drawer with 100 socks. Depending upon our knowledge of the socks, we could have either a statistics problem or a probability problem. If we know that there are 30 red socks, 20 blue socks, and 50 black socks, then we can use probability to answer questions about the makeup of a random sample of these socks. Questions of this type would be: â€Å"What is the probability that we draw two blue socks and two red socks from the drawer?†Ã¢â‚¬Å"What is the probability that we pull out 3 socks and have a matching pair?†Ã¢â‚¬ What is the probability that we draw five socks, with replacement, and they are all black?† If instead, we have no knowledge about the types of socks in the drawer, then we enter into the realm of statistics. Statistics help us to infer properties about the population on the basis of a random sample. Questions that are statistical in nature would be: A random sampling of ten socks from the drawer produced one blue sock, four red socks, and five black socks. What is the total proportion of black, blue and red socks in the drawer?We randomly sample ten socks from the drawer, write down the number of black socks, and then return the socks to the drawer. This process is done five times. The mean number of socks is for each of these trials is 7. What is the true number of black socks in the drawer? Commonality Of course, probability and statistics do have much in common. This is because statistics are built upon the foundation of probability. Although we typically do not have complete information about a population, we can use theorems and results from probability to arrive at statistical results. These results inform us about the population. Underlying all of this is the assumption that we are dealing with random processes. This is why we stressed that the sampling procedure we used with the sock drawer was random. If we do not have a random sample, then we are no longer building upon assumptions that are present in probability. Probability and statistics are closely linked, but there are differences. If you need to know what methods are appropriate, just ask yourself what it is that you know.

US foreign policy during the Iraq Iran war Essay

US foreign policy during the Iraq Iran war - Essay Example The foreign policy of America is very influential to the world since it is the only super power left. The US foreign policy towards Iraq was illegitimate since it contravened the procedures and justifications provided by the United Nation’s charter. The UN charter stipulates clearly the procedures that should be followed by a country to perpetrate coercion or violence to another state. The UN charter is the only legitimate basis that a country can use to attack another sovereign state since it has been reached through consensus by the member states forming the United Nations. The United States of America acted in total disregard of this charter and used its influence in the world to attack the regime of Saddam Hussein, condemning it of threatening the world peace. Iraq was supported by America during its war with Iran; it was assisted both financially and technologically. The US supported Saddam despite the fact that it knew that it was Iraq that had invaded Iran as a result o f border disputes which had been in existence for several years. The US used its foreign policies in an attempt to solve the crisis but was biased since it decided to support one side.The war was also as a result of suspicions of Shia insurgency which was influenced largely by the revolution in Iran. The United States of America supported the Iraq government and as a result about half a million people died comprising soldiers from both countries and civilians too. A lot of economic loss was also lost, the US which was supposed to use its foreign policies to enable it to effectively play the role of big brother to help the two countries resolve their differences, instead took sides in the war which only made matters worse. In fact, before the war began, American president, Carter, gave Saddam Hussein and his government the much needed green light for him to invade Iran. Zbigniew Brzezinski, the United States national security advisor met the Iraq president in Jordan so as to discuss how the two nations can join their efforts to oppose Iran on the issue of the border disputes which was the main contentious issue between the Iranians and the Iraqis (Gerber, Para 7-8). Brzezinski recommended in a memorandum, the destabilization of Iran by the US government by use of the surrounding countries. Although, the government of the united states of America denied any involvement in the Iraq-Iran war in the early 1980s, a few months before Iraq invaded Iran the US security advisor indicated that US was willing to work with Iraq. Just two months before Saddam Hussein invaded Iran, Brzezinski assured him that US was fully behind the Iraq government and that US was not opposed to the separation of the Khuzestan which was part of Iran. In this case the united states used their influence to attack Iran through Iraq and thus its foreign policies could not be said to be for the welfare of the world but for the good of the Americans and their allies and thus if a country is opposed to the opinion of the united states of America like Iran was in the 1980 war then it might be attacked either directly or through its neighbors by the US government (Gerber, Para 5). By the end of the US sponsored war both Iraq and Iran were devastated both economically and politically. The two countries had lost a lot of property and thousands of lives. Had the US kept off the war could not have reached such high magnitudes and thus such losses could have minimal. The US foreign policy in Iraq during the Iraq Iran war was favorable to the Iraqis but very unfavorable to the Iranians (Hiltermann, pp 180). US foreign policy during the 2003 Iraq war Things later changed when the regime of Saddam Hussein was blamed by the American government to threaten the world peace by manufacturing weapons of mass destruction. Again the

Discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 63

Discussion - Assignment Example Spreadsheet is also very easy to be configured for personal and professional usage (Protiviti, â€Å"Spreadsheet Risk Management†; Rost 1-5). Spreadsheet is an important application for financial as well as operational reporting procedure in organizations. In this context, spreadsheet is applied for different purposes that include account settlement, transaction conclusions and making the business models (Protiviti, â€Å"Spreadsheet Risk Management†). Additionally, it assists in managing the payroll and other related business operations in an effective manner. In the current complex business scenario, spreadsheet is used for managing compliance, risk as well as governance (Rost 1-5). Spreadsheet is also identified to possess certain limitation that can affect the performance of an organization largely. Spreadsheet is unreliable, as unauthorized users can access financial information without an approval, which raises security risk. Error in formulas of the spreadsheet can raise disputes for computing financial information (Rost 1-5). In this context, there should be software related to risk management, which will provide the embedded information with an expert solution. The ‘risk management software’ would manage the risk level associated with spreadsheet. In this respect, spreadsheet with the integration of risk management software would be effective in managing data with better integrity as well as reliability (Rost

Carbon Membranes from Polyamideimide and Polyetherimide

Carbon Membranes from Polyamideimide and Polyetherimide CARBON MEMBRANES FROM POLYAMIDEIMIDE AND POLYETHERIMIDE FOR NITROGEN AND METHANE SEPARATION AND ITS PARAMETER STUDY ABSTRACT Carbon membranes prepared from polyamideimide and polyetherimide were studied to find out the effects of different parameters on membrane characteristics. Their properties were analyzed to understand its scope in methane purification. Different compositions were tried to find out the optimum polymer composition as well as the optimum blend composition. They were pyrolyzed at various temperatures to study the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the morphology of the membrane. Efforts have been made for obtaining a narrow pore distribution as nitrogen and methane have comparable sizes. Analysis of the microstructure of membranes using XRD confirms the variations in chain packing density and d-spacing of polymer chains as a result of a change in pyrolysis temperature. CHN analysis revealed the percentage composition of different elements in the membrane as it was important to control amount of oxygen in the membrane. Glass transition temperature is found using DSC to confirm perfect blen ding of polymers. TGA has been done to find out how the polymer composition affects degradation temperature and to study the chemical changes occurring during pyrolysis. SEM images, both cross section, and surface have been taken to analyze pore structure of the membrane. Keywords: Polyetherimide, Polyamideimide, Pyrolysis, XRD, SEM, CHN. INTRODUCTION Membranes have been widely received as a promising technology in gas separation processes. This is due to its high reliability, low capital investment and low energy usage which overshadow conventional gas separation techniques such as cryogenic distillation, liquid absorption, pressure swing adsorption etc. These established conventional techniques are known for their complexity in processes and high energy intensity. For this reason, researchers are making efforts for an alternative way that promises to give high-cost effectiveness and easy handling (1). Polymer membranes have been widely studied for their application in gas separating units, but they always faced drawbacks like low thermal and chemical stability. Henceforth studies have been focused on carbon membranes, which are the novel and advanced type of membranes. They have been giving promising results ever since and marked a new benchmark for the selectivity of gasses. Excellent ability to withstand high temperature and chemicals made carbon membranes a new branch of study for the researchers to follow. (2) Carbon membranes are prepared by pyrolysing polymer membranes. Pyrolysis is the most significant step in the preparation of carbon membrane. There are different pyrolysis factors that affect membrane properties. During pyrolysis the parameters like pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, atmospheric condition, soaking time etc. can influence the transport properties of the membrane. These factors are chosen wisely based on the application of the membrane. (3) Material selection is the prime factor concerning in preparation of carbon membrane. There are wide varieties of precursor polymers available for preparation of carbon membrane (4). Selection of polymer is the important factor as pyrolysis of different polymer gives carbon membrane with entirely different properties. The precursor polymer should satisfy minimum criteria such as it should not soften nor liquefies during pyrolysis. It should be able to withstand high temperature (5). Polyamidimides and polyetherimides are being recently studied and are found to be giving satisfactory results due to its high melting point and thermal stability (6). Fuertes and Centeno used polyetherimide to prepare supported carbon membrane for gas separation (7). They conducted gas permeability studies for individual gasses as well as for many mixtures of gasses. They also used phenolic resins for their studies (8). Different polymers are always blended to effectively combine the desirable properties of the blending polymers. Gas separation properties of carbon membranes are enhanced while combining different materials. New studies are going on investigating the blending techniques for an optimized result (9). Pore size control is one of the most challenging factors in carbon membrane preparation. Nitrogen and methane is having a kinetic diameter of 3.6 °A and 3.8 °A respectively (10). So in order to separate them by molecular sieving very narrow pore distribution has to be obtained. To get very specific pore size, pyrolysis temperature was changed accordingly. Two types of polymers were chosen so as to understand the effect of individual polymer on membrane properties. Membrane parameters such as polymer concentration, pyrolysis temperature were varied to understand the morphological as well as chemical changes taking place in the membrane. Comparison of carbon membrane with polymer membrane was carried out, which showed interesting results that can be further used to study gas permeation properties of the membranes. Results revealed that these membranes can be used for the separation process of nitrogen from methane. EXPERIMENTAL Material Polyamideimide (PAI) polymer and Polyetherimide (PEI) polymer which are required for the preparation of polymer membrane were purchased from UTM, Malaysia. N-methyl 2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was the solvent used and it was purchased from Merck Life Science Private Limited, Mumbai, India. Methanol used for washing was bought from Titan Biotech Limited, Rajasthan, India.   Acetone was purchased from Merck Specialities Private Limited, Mumbai, India. All reagents were used without any further purification. Polymer Membrane Preparation Polymers that were chosen for preparation were polyamideimide and polyetherimide. The solvent used was N-Methyl-2- pyrolidone. The polymer concentration in NMP was varied from 2- 20 wt.% as shown in the Table 1. Different batches of polymer solution were prepared by dissolving the corresponding amount of polymer in 25ml NMP. Polyamideimide-polyetherimide ratio in the solution was varied as 25/75%, 50/50%, 75/25%, 0/100% and prepared different batches accordingly. For complete dissolution, the solution was kept for magnetic stirring for 3 hrs. The temperature was increased up to 80oC occasionally for 10 minutes, to avoid undissolved particles in the solution. Later the solution was sonicated in a sonication bath. The solution was then casted on a glass plate using a casting rod. The casting rode that was used has a dimension of 450ÃŽ ¼m. The glass plate was kept in the atmosphere for two days for evaporation of the solvent. Later it was kept inside a vacuum oven at 60oC for complete r emoval of NMP. Table 1: Polymer Batches Sample Code Total Polymer (%) PAI/PEI wt percentage (%) PM-01 2 25/75 PM-02 9 25/75 PM-03 12 25/75 PM-04 15 25/75 PM-05 18 25/75 PM-06 20 25/75 Carbon Membrane Preparation Polymer membrane was cut into a rectangular piece and transferred into an alumina crucible. It was then kept inside a tubular furnace by VBCC   for pyrolysis. It was a horizontal furnace with alumina tube. Nitrogen environment was chosen for pyrolysis. The flow rate of nitrogen was kept at 25ml/min. Polymer membranes with PAI/PEI composition of 25/75% was only further used for making carbon membrane as they showed good structural stability compared to other batches. For pyrolysis different protocols were followed. The protocols are as shown below, 1) 50 to 250 oC at a ramp rate of 13.3 Co/min.(2) 250 oC to (Tmax-15) oC at a ramp rate of 3.85 Co/min.(3) (Tmax-15) oC to Tmax oC at a ramp rate of 0.25 Co/min.(4) Soak at Tmax for 2 h. (11)   After pyrolysis, it was kept for natural cooling before taking out. The different batches of carbon membranes based on different pyrolysis protocol were prepared as given in the Table 2. Polymer membrane with 9% polymer concentration was the membrane used for studying different pyrolysis protocols. Table 2: Carbon Membrane Batches Sample Code Total Polymer (%) Pyrolysis Temperature(oC) CM-01 2 600 CM-600 9 600 CM-450 9 450 CM-800 9 800 CM-03 12 600 CM-04 15 600 CM-05 18 600 CM-06 20 600 Characterization of Synthesized Membranes Various techniques were employed for the characterization of polymer as well as their derivative carbon membranes. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to find out glass transition temperature of polymer membranes and to study the blending of polymers. Under nitrogen atmosphere, scans from 50 to 450oC at the heating rate of 10oC/min were performed on a DSC Perkin Elmer model 6000. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the thermal degradation of the polymer membranes. Degradation temperature of the membrane, as well as the weight loss during the process, is analyzed. It was carried out on a TGA Perkin Elmer 4000 model, in nitrogen atmosphere at a flow rate of 30 mL min-1. The temperature range was from 50 up to 750 oC. X-ray Diffractometer (XRD) was used to study the structural changes in membrane due to variation in pyrolysis temperature. Perkin Elmer 1621 wide-angle X-ray diffractometer was the instrument used to study the microstructural changes in membrane. Using Braggs law the average d-spacing of the membrane was evaluated. It is as shown below, nÃŽ » = 2d sin ÃŽ ¸, where n is an integral number, ÃŽ » is the X-ray wavelength, d is for the inter-layer spacing between the polymer chains and ÃŽ ¸ is   the diffraction angle. CHN analysis was conducted to study the variation in the elemental composition with pyrolysis temperature. Elementar Vario EL was the equipment used here for analysis. Compostion of oxygen was found using separate apparatus. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to get pore size of the membrane as well as get a closer image of the membrane. JEOL Model JSM 6390LV is the model used for the analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical properties Both PAI and PEI met the requirements for preparing carbon membrane with promising results. While contents of PAI in membrane made the membrane more brittle, which is due to its aromatic rings, (10) PEI gave structural support to the membrane. So PAI/PEI content was fixed at 25/75% for all the batches later on. As two polymers are used, the miscibility of the precursors has to be tested and glass transition temperature of the membrane was taken as the criteria for the evaluation. For the polymer blends, Tg was found to be in between of that of individual polymers. Tg of PEI and PAI are 217 °C and 280 °C respectively. And from the Table 3 it is clear that both the polymers are completely miscible and was perfectly blended together. Table 3: Glass Transition Temperature Sample Code PAI/PEI wt Percentage (%) Glass Transition Temperature (oC) PM-25 25/75 233 PM-50 50/50 249 PM-75 75/25 265 PM-100 0/100 219 Effect of polymer concentration on thermal characteristics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unlike polymer membrane, carbon membrane was thermally and chemically stable. Thermal stability is analyzed by TGA. TGA analysis of all polymer membranes is shown in Figure 1. It shows that concentration does not have much effect on degradation temperature of membranes. But it gives an insight into chose the pyrolysis protocol that has to be followed. There are different pyrolysis protocols for preparation of carbon membranes, based on type of precursors used, one protocol is fixed. Figure 1: Thermal analysis of Polymer Membranes Figure 1 illustrates the weight variation of polymer membranes during the heating process up to 800 °C. According to the TGA thermo-diagram, the degradation temperature (Td) is 550 °C and was defined as the temperature corresponding to 15% weight loss. This indicates the high thermal resistance of the membrane. The total weight loss at 800 °C, with 10 °/min heating rate, was approximately 60%. The enhanced thermal stability of the membrane highlights its quality as a precursor for the preparation of carbon molecular sieve membranes. Effect of polymer concentration on structure of membrane Figure 2: XRD of Carbon Membrane of different concentrations Effect of polymer concentration on structure of carbon membrane is shown in Figure 2. As the concentration of polymer was increased from 2% to 20%, peak intensification took place, resulting in a more compact structure. Pore size was reduced and membrane with higher packing density is formed. Effect of pyrolysis temperature on microstructure of membrane Structural analysis on carbon membranes was done by obtaining XRD spectra as a function of pyrolysis temperature. As shown in Figure 3, the XRD spectrum for membrane prepared at 450oC is a merger of two peaks at 22.7o and 18.8o. With increase in pyrolysis temperature, the peaks joined into a single but intensified peak with a shift toward the smaller pore sizes; indicating a decrement in average d-spacing. Figure 3: XRD of Carbon Membrane prepared at different temperatures d-spacing in carbon membrane refers to interlayer distances, with increase in temperature more compact structures are formed. 800  °C was found to be the optimum pyrolysis temperature as membrane having high density and packing efficiency are formed at this temperature. (1) Effect of pyrolysis temperature on membrane composition In order to study how pyrolysis temperature changed the chemical composition of the membrane, elemental analysis has been conducted for both polymers as well as carbon membrane. In Figure 4, the point zero in x-axis corresponds to precursor membrane and it has the lowest carbon content and they started to increase with increase in pyrolysis temperature. However other elemental contents like oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen was reduced with increase in temperature. Presence of oxygen compounds in the carbon membrane surface can make the membrane more hydrophilic and can cause swelling of membranes (11). For the better performance of carbon membrane oxygen content has to be less than 4% (12).When pyrolysis temperature in increased, oxygen content is reduced. Membrane prepared at 800oC has oxygen content less than 4%. So the effect of pyrolysis temperature on hydrophilictiy of the carbon membrane was tested to study the influence of oxygen in the membrane. From the Table 4 it is clear that as pyrolysis temperature is increased, amount of water absorbed is decreased, thus increasing the hydrophobic nature of carbon membranes. This can be explained by the reduction in oxygen containing group in membrane with pyrolysis temperature. Figure 4: Elemental analysis of membranes Table 4: Hydrophilicity of carbon membranes Sample-Code Pyrolysis Temperature ( °C) Wet weight of the membrane (g) Dry weight of the membrane (g) Amount of water absorbed (g) CM-450 450 0.0588 0.0553 0.0035 CM-600 600 0.0523 0.0503 0.0020 CM-800 800 0.0687 0.0607 0.0008 Morphology of Membranes The surface and cross-section morphologies of carbon membranes as well as polymer membranes were investigated by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) techniques. Surface image of polymer membrane is shown in Figure 6. It shows a smooth and defect free surface without any deformation. Cross section of the polymer membrane is also shown below. Compared to carbon membrane it does not have uniform pore distribution. All the pores are elongated pores and the membrane formed is very dense. Thickness of polymer membrane was found to be 250ÃŽ ¼m. The honey-comb structure of carbon membrane shows the pore structure in the membrane (Figure 5). It is clear from the image that the membrane is rich in pores and has quite a uniform pore distribution. The membrane was having a sponge-like matrix unlike polymer membrane. This uniform pore distribution allows carbon membrane to have high selectivity over polymer membrane.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (b) Figure 5: SEM images: (a) Top surface and (b) Cross section of Carbon Membrane   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (b) Figure 6: SEM images: (a) Top surface and (b) Cross section of PolymerMembrane CONCLUSION Different polymer blends were tried for the preparation of polymer membrane and membranes derived from Polyamideimde/Polyetherimide (25/75wt.%) exhibited more attractive performance than the other blends. Polymer concentration was varied from 2-20% and at 9%   it was found to be exhibiting best results. Polymer membranes prepared from PAI/PEI were transparent hydrophilic membranes. Polymer membranes were thermally unstable compared to carbon membrane and were found to have degradation temperature around 450oC. Complete miscibility of both the polymers was confirmed and the glass transition temperature of the polymer membrane was also found. For the preparation of carbon membrane different protocols were followed for pyrolysis, and 800oC was found to be the optimum temperature for pyrolysis. Thermal analysis of membrane had conducted, which proved the higher thermal stability of the carbon membrane. Morphological studies shows that carbon membrane prepared at 800oC have desirable pore size compared to other membranes prepared at lower temperatures. XRD studies of the carbon membrane showed that as temperature increases, more compact membranes are obtained, which decreases the permeability of the membrane. All the membranes have shown promising results that can be further investigated for gas separation studies. References 1. Carbon membranes from blends of PBI and polyimides for N2/CH4 and CO2/CH4. Seyed Saeid Hosseini, Tai Shung Chung. s.l. : Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, Vol. 328. 174-185. 2. A review on the latest development of carbon membranes for gas separation. A.F. Ismail, L.I.B. David. s.l. : J. Membr. Sci., 2001, Vol. 193. 1. 3. Fabrication of carbon membranes for gas separationa review. S.M. Saufi, A.F. Ismail. s.l. : Carbon, 2004, Vol. 42. 241-259. 4. Gas permeation through micropores of carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from kapton polyimide. Suda H, Haraya K. s.l. : Chem B, 1997, Vol. 101. 3988-94. 5. DH, Morthon-Jones. Polymer processing. London : Chapman and Hal, 1984. Chapter 2. 6. Relationship between chemical structure of aromatic polyimides and gas permeation properties of their carbon molecular sieve membranes. H.B. Park, Y.K. Kim, J.M. Lee, S.Y. Lee, Y.M. Lee. s.l. : J. Membr. Sci., 2004, Vol. 229. 117. 7. Carbon molecular sieve membranes from polyetherimide. Fuertes AB, Centeno TA. s.l. : Microporous Mesoporous Mater, 1998, Vol. 26. 23-6. 8. Supported carbon molecular sieve membranes based on phenolic resin. Centeno TA, Fuertes AB. s.l. : J Membr Sci, 1999, Vol. 160. 201-211. 9. Gas separation properties of carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from polyimide/polyvinylpyrrolidone blends: effect of the molecular weight of polyvinylpyrrolidone. Y.K. Kim, H.B. Park, Y.M. Lee. s.l. : of the molecular weight of polyvinylpyrrolidone, 2005, Vol. 251. 159. 10. Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Dipak Rana, Takeshi Matsuura ,Henry C. Foley. Carbon-based Membranes for Separation Processes. London : Springer, 2011. 11. Carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from Matrimid polyimide for nitrogen/methane separation. Xue Ning, William J. Koros. s.l. : Carbon, 2014, Vol. 66. 5 1 1 5 2 2. 12. Interaction, miscibility and phase. E. Fà ¶ldes, E. Fekete, F.E. Karasz, B. Pukà ¡nszky. s.l. : Polymer, 2000, Vol. 41. 975. 13. Gas permeation and micropore structure of carbon molecular sieving membranes modified by oxidation. Kusakabe K, Yamamoto M, Morooka S. s.l. : J Membr Sci , 1998, Vol. 149. 59-67. 14. Characterization of ultramicroporous carbon membranes with. Jones CW, Koros WJ. s.l. : Ind Eng Chem Res, 1995, Vol. 34. 158-163.

Elementary Music Education Observation Essay

The class I observed is a grade 5 music class at Bellewood Public School with 25 students, the teacher is Mr. Bestien. Mr. Bestien mainly conduct his class in a question and answer format, where he asks the class a question and let the class figure out the answer. The class I observed was being taught to play Irish Washerwoman on a recorder in this lesson. Mr. Bestian asks the students to analyze the piece before letting them play; he asked the class â€Å"When looking at music, what comes first?† which leads to the new concept of 6-8 time. The teacher had the students clap the rhythm while counting the beats out loud and when students eventually lost track of where they are, as the piece is all 8th notes, so he asked the students what they can do to keep track of the beats. One student suggested that they can count and clap beat 1 and 4 extra loud, which then the teacher suggested the students to clap the rhythms again and stomp their feet on beat 1 and 4. Then the class revised the concept of pick up notes. After that, the teacher asked the class what is the key of the piece, revised on how to determine the key by looking at the key signature. The piece being taught is in F major so the class also did a revision on the fingering for B flat on the recorder, the teacher then have the students to cross check each other’s fingerings. It seems to me that Mr. Bestien is adapting more of a problem solving lesson plan, as he asked the students a lot of questions to get them think about the piece that they are about to learn. He is very observant about the weakness of the students, hence was able to ask other students what could be the solution for the problem. There were several other tricks that Mr. Bestien used in the class. When the class is not as engaged as they should be, he made the students stand up and sit down several times to get their blood to circulate better. He also taught the students a trick to remember the fingerings for notes with sharps, which I think would be very helpful, because as a grown up even Becca and I did not know about it. The trick is for example we want to play an A sharp, we first put down the fingerings for A (left thumb, index, and middle), then put two more fingers (left 4th, and right index) down directly below the lowest finger for A, than remove the middle finger from the hole, and that would become an A sharp which is enharmonic to B flat.